Essentially, everyone who used this multi-sig wallet, can no longer access their Ethereum anymore. We continue to investigate the situation and are exploring all possible implications and solutions. It still exists; it can simply not be accessed. Imagine that million USD is stored in a deposit box. Somehow, a random guy was able to walk into the bank and say he was the owner of the security box. He was handed full access without a problem and subsequently permanently deleted the key to the deposit box.
This key, was completely unique and can in no way be recreated again. At least, not under the rules of the network. There is, however, a solution to this problem. One that is pretty controversial. However, when the decision was made to hard fork the Ethereum network to recover the funds lost during the DAO hack , a part of the network did not agree with the decision. Suddenly, there were 2 versions of Ethereum: Ethereum, and Ethereum Classic.
It is very doubtful that the Ethereum network will opt for a hard fork again, seeing the controversy it caused last time. No doubt, Ethereum classic would benefit as a result. After all, where is the monetary limit for the Ethereum foundation to advocate for a quick fix that goes against the rules of their own network?
Edit: The original version of this piece had a mistake in it. Thanks to Rene Schneider for correcting me on it. Managing The Migration The bounties on Gitcoin which are based upon the current, Gitcoin legacy smart contract will remain open.
The web application will completely support these bounties until the very last one has expired or been fulfilled. All new bounties posted to Gitcoin as of today will be utilizing the new, Standard Bounties smart contracts. Gitcoin now natively integrates with Github. This means that, when you login to Gitcoin, the application will know your Github identity, allowing us to more easily keep you in the loop when things change.
Login Button in the top right of the app We have also cleaned up the statues on Gitcoin to make it a little more clear the linearity of flow: The flow of Bounties on Gitcoin If you have any questions about these changes feel free to poke in on our slack and message Kevin Owocki or myself, or post an issue on Github.
We are excited to see these changes in the wild and to continue our mission to grow open source. Interested in Bounties Network? Are you considering using a bounty system to build your platform? Are you interested in contributing towards leading Web3 projects, while getting paid? We let you put bounties on any task, paying in the native token of your project or ETH.
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The withdraw function, however, invokes a subtly different variable—in this case, it is differentiated by a single underscore—which is initialized as 0 and never changed. The user can never actually withdraw ether from the contract. If a bug persists into the final, deployed contract and costs a user ether, it can be useful to think of it in the same context as the above-listed attacks—even if the project is not a verified scam.
This is not meant to vilify the developers, but to ensure that the problems faced in the early years of Ethereum can be productively put to use in avoiding similar pitfalls for future contracts. King of the Ether Throne One such example, King of the Ether Throne, failed to account for the higher gas value that would be necessary for sending ether to a contract address gas is the small amount of ether required to perform computations on the blockchain.
Payments went mostly to the reigning king, with a small portion extracted for the contract owners. This should have been acceptable, since a contract can hold ether, but sending ether to a contract costs more gas than sending it to a wallet. The problem here is two-fold: the contract failed to check for the success of the transaction before continuing its execution, and, of course, it also failed to allocate enough gas to send ether to a contract. This left the earnings from the previous king locked in the contract, accessible only by its owners.
Further Reading This is not meant to be a comprehensive list of possible vulnerabilities in Solidity design patterns. There are many more, some of which have already been exploited. Among them: a user could artificially drive the stack size up to a point where the targeted function will fail to execute, a contract could attempt to simulate randomness by insufficient means which could then be manipulated, or miners could adjust block timestamps to their benefit e.
Solidity developers should always stay up to date with security recommendations [10] and have their code audited to the greatest possible extent. Attacks on the Network The Ethereum network was and remains carefully designed to resist large-scale attacks. One of its primary tools for this is gas, which makes many types of attacks prohibitively expensive for the attacker. The protocol also dis-incentivizes miners breaking from the consensus reached by the majority of the chain, which prevents coalitions of rouge miners from re-writing history in some privately beneficial way.
The attackers have been able to exploit bugs in blockchain clients to circumvent the cost, but notably, developers for these clients and for the Ethereum Foundation have been able to fix the problems quite rapidly. Testnets function like real blockchains, but their tokens do not hold real value. Since testnet ether is valueless, it is far more plausible to mount a denial-of-service attack against them.
These can have real impacts on companies in the Ethereum space who depend on testnets to develop their product. In early , an attack on the popular testnet Ropsten led to the emergence of entirely new test networks that would establish consensus in less vulnerable ways. Attacks on Exchanges Cryptocurrency exchanges are services that allow a user to trade one currency for another.
In some cases, this includes the exchange of fiat currency for crypto, but in most, it simply means one form of cryptocurrency for another. There are many reasons for the notable proliferation of exchanges in recent years. For example, many exchanges are quite difficult to use, especially for new traders, plus exchanges can only support a finite number of tokens or coins. If a user wants one in particular, he or she may be forced to try a new exchange in order to acquire it.
The most notable feature for any exchange, however, is security. Exchanges deal with substantial transactions in huge volume, they are sparsely regulated, and many have limited resources for development and customer support. All these factors make them attractive targets for hackers. The most well-known exchange attack in cryptocurrency as a whole was, without question, Mt. Gox—but since it predates Ethereum, it will not be discussed in detail here. The withdrawFunds function allows the sender to specify the amount of wei to withdraw.
This function is intended to succeed only if the requested amount to withdraw is less than 1 ether and a withdrawal has not occurred in the last week. The vulnerability is in line 17, where the contract sends the user their requested amount of ether. Consider an attacker who has created the contract in Attack. Example 2. This would initialize and point the public variable etherStore to the contract to be attacked.
In this example, we will also assume a number of other users have deposited ether into this contract, such that its current balance is 10 ether. The following will then occur: Attack. The sender msg. Thus, balances[0x This will pass all the requirements lines 12—16 of the EtherStore contract as no previous withdrawals have been made.
Thus, we still have balances[0x This is also the case for the lastWithdrawTime variable. Again, we pass all the requirements. Steps 4—8 repeat until it is no longer the case that EtherStore. This will then allow lines 18 and 19 of the EtherStore contract to be executed for each call to the withdrawFunds function. The final result is that the attacker has withdrawn all but 1 ether from the EtherStore contract in a single transaction. Preventative Techniques There are a number of common techniques that help avoid potential reentrancy vulnerabilities in smart contracts.
The first is to whenever possible use the built-in transfer function when sending ether to external contracts. The second technique is to ensure that all logic that changes state variables happens before ether is sent out of the contract or any external call. In the EtherStore example, lines 18 and 19 of EtherStore. It is good practice for any code that performs external calls to unknown addresses to be the last operation in a localized function or piece of code execution.
This is known as the checks-effects-interactions pattern. A third technique is to introduce a mutex—that is, to add a state variable that locks the contract during code execution, preventing reentrant calls. Applying all of these techniques using all three is unnecessary, but we do it for demonstrative purposes to EtherStore. Reentrancy played a major role in the attack, which ultimately led to the hard fork that created Ethereum Classic ETC.
This means that an integer variable can represent only a certain range of numbers. A uint8, for example, can only store numbers in the range [0,]. Trying to store into a uint8 will result in 0. If care is not taken, variables in Solidity can be exploited if user input is unchecked and calculations are performed that result in numbers that lie outside the range of the data type that stores them.
For example, subtracting 1 from a uint8 unsigned integer of 8 bits; i. This is an underflow. We have assigned a number below the range of the uint8, so the result wraps around and gives the largest number a uint8 can store. Two simple analogies of this behavior are odometers in cars, which measure distance traveled they reset to , after the largest number, i.
For clarity, adding to a uint8 that currently has a value of 0 will result in the number 1. It is sometimes instructive to think of fixed-size variables as being cyclic, where we start again from zero if we add numbers above the largest possible stored number, and start counting down from the largest number if we subtract from zero. In the case of signed int types, which can represent negative numbers, we start again once we reach the largest negative value; for example, if we try to subtract 1 from a int8 whose value is , we will get These kinds of numerical gotchas allow attackers to misuse code and create unexpected logic flows.
For example, consider the TimeLock contract in TimeLock. Example 3. The user may extend the wait time to longer than 1 week if they choose, but once deposited, the user can be sure their ether is locked in safely for at least a week—or so this contract intends. In the event that a user is forced to hand over their private key, a contract such as this might be handy to ensure their ether is unobtainable for a short period of time.
But if a user had locked in ether in this contract and handed their keys over to an attacker, the attacker could use an overflow to receive the ether, regardless of the lockTime. This number would be added to the current userLockTime and cause an overflow, resetting lockTime[msg. The attacker could then simply call the withdraw function to obtain their reward.
Example 4. Can you see the error in this contract? The flaw comes in the transfer function.
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